Biotin

Functions: as a coenzyme in several enzyme systems. Functions as carboxyl carrier for enzymes involved in carbohydrate, fat & protein metabolism. CHO à protein; protein à CHO and fat; maintaining normal blood glucose.

Deficiency: Dermatitis is the most severe clinical sign. Biotin is the most expensive to supplement, and is one of the vitamins that has the greatest economic importance.

Poultry: Leg and beak deformities, broken feathers, dermatitis.

Swine: alopecia (loss of hair), dermatitis, ulceration of skin, transverse cracking of the soles and tops of hooves.

Humans: Infantile problems are the majority of deficiency symptoms. Consumption of raw eggs = “egg-white injury”, a disorder caused by an agonist, avidin. Mild depression, hallucination, anxiety, anorexia.

Pantothenic Acid

Functions: Constituent of two important coenzymes: coenzyme A (CoA); and acyl carrier protein (ACP).

Deficiency: ¯ growth & feed efficiency, lesions on the skin, nervous and gastrointestinal system disorders, impaired adrenal function, reduced formation of antibodies.

Poultry: primary signs involve nervous system, adrenal cortex, and skin.

Swine: anorexia, poor growth, diarrhea, goose stepping (sciatic nerve damage)

Humans: Almost never seen naturally, and may take 12 weeks to develop symptoms (fatigue, headaches, muscle weakness, depression, impaired motor coordination)

Cobalamine (B₁₂)

Last known vitamin to be discovered. Formerly known as a “chick growth factor” or “animal protein factor”. Cobalt is an integral component of the molecule.

Functions: Involved in the transfer of 1 carbon units (methyl groups). Conversion of propionate to succinate. Conversion of carbohydrates to lipids.

Deficiency: megaloblastic anemia & Neurological lesions (weakness, tiredness, progressive paralysis, mental disorders, diarrhea), decreased growth.

Ruminants: calves may have poor appetite, growth and muscle weakness. Adults may be deficient if the diet is deficient in Co.

Swine: loss of appetite, reduced gain, vomiting and diarrhea.

Humans: megaloblastic anemia & Neurological lesions

Vitamin	Main Functions	Deficiency Symptoms	Comments
Thiamine	Coenzyme, thiamine pyrophosphate; decarboxylation of alpha-keto acids; transketolase reactions	Polyneuritis and convulsions (head retraction in chickens); cardiovascular disturbances; beriberi (humans); anorexia and emaciation	Relatively nontoxic; seldom deficient in livestock; antagonist of thiamine is an enzyme called thiaminase found in some fish feeds
Ribflavin	Coenzyme - flavin mononucleotide (FMN) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD); dehydrogenase (hydrogen acceptance); important for CHO and protein metabolism	Ecodermal lesions; dermitis and hair loss; curled toe paralysis in birds; moon blindness in horses; leg troubles in pigs	Nontoxic; common swine or poultry diets low or deficient
Pantothenic acid	Coenzyme A; acyl transfer	Dermititis; loss of hair and greying of hair; spastic gait; goose-stepping or posterior incoordination and paralysis; enteritis; poor growth and reproduction	Relatively nontoxic; low content in cereal grains; commonly deficient for swine and poultry
Niacin	Constituent of coenzymes, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP)	3 D's - dermititis, diarrhea, and dementia; pellagra in humans; irritability; inflamation and ulceration of mouth, tongue and digestive tract (black tongue in dogs)	Vasodilation with itching and burning of skin; fatty liver; not available from grains to the pig; can be synthesized in body tissues from surplus tryptophan
Pyridoxine	Coenzyme - pyridoxal phosphate; amino acid decarboxylation - transamination and removal of sulfhydryl groups; red blood cell foramtion	Convulsions; neuritis and hyperittitability; hypochromic-microcytic anemia; increased excretion of xanthurenic acid	Convulsion and death occur in hypervitaminosis; normally adequate in livestock diets
Biotin	Coenzyme - carboxylase; carboxylation; beta-decarboxylation; CO2 fixation	Dermititis and loss of hair (spectacle eye in rats and mice); reduced growth; perosis in chicks	Nontoxic; rendered unavailable by raw egg white; normally adequate from diet or intestinal synthesis
Vitamin	Main Functions	Deficiency Symptoms	Comments
Folacin (Folic acid)	One carbon carrier; related to B12 metabolism	Macrocytic anemia and leukopenia; cervical paralysis in turkeys; poor growth	Nontoxic; unlikely to be deficient for livestock
Choline	Methyl donor; lipotropic substance; constituent of acetylcholine and phospholipids (nerve impulses)	Fatty liver and kidney degeneration; poor reproduction and lactation in swine; perosis in chicks	Persistent diarrhea occurs with hypervitaminosis; may be synthesized in body - especially with high protein diet
B12	Labile methyl group metabolism; isomeration reactions; closely linked to folacin	Macrocytic anemia with megablastic marrow; neurological disturbances; hatching problems in chicks; reduced growth	Nontoxic; not available from plant sources; usually deficient in swine diets based on grains

MINERALS

General:

1. Inorganic, solid, crystalline chemical elements

2. Total mineral content of plants or animals is often called ash

3. Make up 3-5% animal dry weight, depending upon species; Ca accounts for nearly ½ of all mineral make up; P ~ ¼

Classification:

1. Macro-:

a. Minerals that are normally present at greater levels in animal body or needed in relatively large amounts in the diet

b. Include: Ca, P, Na, Cl, Mg, K, S

2. Micro-:

a. Minerals that are normally present at low levels in animal body or needed in very small amounts in the diet

b. Include: Co, Cu, F, I, Fe, Mn, Mo, Se, Zn

c. Small amounts of Se & F are considered beneficial in certain geographical areas, but are toxic if fed in excess

Functions: General functions

1. Skeletal formation and maintenace - Ca, P, Mg, Cu, Mn

2. Function in Protein synthesis - P, S, Zn

3. Oxygen transport - Fe (hemeglobin), Cu

4. Fluid balance (osmotic pressure & excretion) - Na, Cl, K (electrolytes)

5. Regulating acid-base balance of the entire system - Na, Cl, K

6. Activator and (or) component of enzyme systems - Ca, P, K, Mg, Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn

7. Mineral - Vitamin relationships - Ca, P, Co, Se

Natural Sources

1. Forage plants are generally considered good sources of most minerals

2. Grains are a fair source of P, but are low in many other minerals

Digestion and Metabolism

1. Mineral elements are absorbed primarily from S.I. in Ionic form (Na⁺, Cl^-, etc.)

2. Absorption occurs as the result of active absorption (Ca, P, & Na) or diffusion (most all other minerals)

3. Factors affecting mineral absorption:

a. Age of animal

b. Form of element (Chelate vs SO₄ vs O₂)

c. pH of the intestinal tract

d. binding or chelating components (oxalates, phytates, fats, etc.)

e. Excess or interactions with other minerals ( K = ¯ Mg absorb.; Ca = ¯ P & ¯ Zn absorb.)

Units of Measurement:

1. Amount required per animal daily (g, mg, m g)

2. % or amount per weight unit of diet

a. macro minerals generally expressed as a % of the diet

b. trace (micro) minerals generally expressed as mg or m g / kg or lb. of diet