Cobalamine (B₁₂)

Last known vitamin to be discovered. Formerly known as a “chick growth factor” or “animal protein factor”. Cobalt is an integral component of the molecule.

Functions: Involved in the transfer of 1 carbon units (methyl groups). Conversion of propionate to succinate. Conversion of carbohydrates to lipids.

Deficiency: megaloblastic anemia & Neurological lesions (weakness, tiredness, progressive paralysis, mental disorders, diarrhea), decreased growth.

Ruminants: calves may have poor appetite, growth and muscle weakness. Adults may be deficient if the diet is deficient in Co.

Swine: loss of appetite, reduced gain, vomiting and diarrhea.

Humans: megaloblastic anemia & Neurological lesions

Vitamin	Main Functions	Deficiency Symptoms	Comments
Thiamine	Coenzyme, thiamine pyrophosphate; decarboxylation of alpha-keto acids; transketolase reactions	Polyneuritis and convulsions (head retraction in chickens); cardiovascular disturbances; beriberi (humans); anorexia and emaciation	Relatively nontoxic; seldom deficient in livestock; antagonist of thiamine is an enzyme called thiaminase found in some fish feeds
Ribflavin	Coenzyme - flavin mononucleotide (FMN) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD); dehydrogenase (hydrogen acceptance); important for CHO and protein metabolism	Ecodermal lesions; dermitis and hair loss; curled toe paralysis in birds; moon blindness in horses; leg troubles in pigs	Nontoxic; common swine or poultry diets low or deficient
Pantothenic acid	Coenzyme A; acyl transfer	Dermititis; loss of hair and greying of hair; spastic gait; goose-stepping or posterior incoordination and paralysis; enteritis; poor growth and reproduction	Relatively nontoxic; low content in cereal grains; commonly deficient for swine and poultry
Niacin	Constituent of coenzymes, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP)	3 D's - dermititis, diarrhea, and dementia; pellagra in humans; irritability; inflamation and ulceration of mouth, tongue and digestive tract (black tongue in dogs)	Vasodilation with itching and burning of skin; fatty liver; not available from grains to the pig; can be synthesized in body tissues from surplus tryptophan
Pyridoxine	Coenzyme - pyridoxal phosphate; amino acid decarboxylation - transamination and removal of sulfhydryl groups; red blood cell foramtion	Convulsions; neuritis and hyperittitability; hypochromic-microcytic anemia; increased excretion of xanthurenic acid	Convulsion and death occur in hypervitaminosis; normally adequate in livestock diets
Biotin	Coenzyme - carboxylase; carboxylation; beta-decarboxylation; CO2 fixation	Dermititis and loss of hair (spectacle eye in rats and mice); reduced growth; perosis in chicks	Nontoxic; rendered unavailable by raw egg white; normally adequate from diet or intestinal synthesis
Vitamin	Main Functions	Deficiency Symptoms	Comments
Folacin (Folic acid)	One carbon carrier; related to B12 metabolism	Macrocytic anemia and leukopenia; cervical paralysis in turkeys; poor growth	Nontoxic; unlikely to be deficient for livestock
Choline	Methyl donor; lipotropic substance; constituent of acetylcholine and phospholipids (nerve impulses)	Fatty liver and kidney degeneration; poor reproduction and lactation in swine; perosis in chicks	Persistent diarrhea occurs with hypervitaminosis; may be synthesized in body - especially with high protein diet
B12	Labile methyl group metabolism; isomeration reactions; closely linked to folacin	Macrocytic anemia with megablastic marrow; neurological disturbances; hatching problems in chicks; reduced growth	Nontoxic; not available from plant sources; usually deficient in swine diets based on grains

MINERALS

General:

1. Inorganic, solid, crystalline chemical elements

2. Total mineral content of plants or animals is often called ash

3. Make up 3-5% animal dry weight, depending upon species; Ca accounts for nearly ½ of all mineral make up; P ~ ¼

Classification:

1. Macro-:

a. Minerals that are normally present at greater levels in animal body or needed in relatively large amounts in the diet

b. Include: Ca, P, Na, Cl, Mg, K, S

2. Micro-:

a. Minerals that are normally present at low levels in animal body or needed in very small amounts in the diet

b. Include: Co, Cu, F, I, Fe, Mn, Mo, Se, Zn

c. Small amounts of Se & F are considered beneficial in certain geographical areas, but are toxic if fed in excess

Functions: General functions

1. Skeletal formation and maintenace - Ca, P, Mg, Cu, Mn

2. Function in Protein synthesis - P, S, Zn

3. Oxygen transport - Fe (hemeglobin), Cu

4. Fluid balance (osmotic pressure & excretion) - Na, Cl, K (electrolytes)

5. Regulating acid-base balance of the entire system - Na, Cl, K

6. Activator and (or) component of enzyme systems - Ca, P, K, Mg, Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn

7. Mineral - Vitamin relationships - Ca, P, Co, Se

Natural Sources

1. Forage plants are generally considered good sources of most minerals

2. Grains are a fair source of P, but are low in many other minerals

Digestion and Metabolism

1. Mineral elements are absorbed primarily from S.I. in Ionic form (Na⁺, Cl^-, etc.)

2. Absorption occurs as the result of active absorption (Ca, P, & Na) or diffusion (most all other minerals)

3. Factors affecting mineral absorption:

a. Age of animal

b. Form of element (Chelate vs SO₄ vs O₂)

c. pH of the intestinal tract

d. binding or chelating components (oxalates, phytates, fats, etc.)

e. Excess or interactions with other minerals ( K = ¯ Mg absorb.; Ca = ¯ P & ¯ Zn absorb.)

Units of Measurement:

1. Amount required per animal daily (g, mg, m g)

2. % or amount per weight unit of diet

a. macro minerals generally expressed as a % of the diet

b. trace (micro) minerals generally expressed as mg or m g / kg or lb. of diet

Calcium

I. Most Ca is stored in the bones

A. 99% Ca in body is in bone and teeth

II. Ca mobilization from the bone may not be rapid enough for immediate metabolic needs

A. Tetany may occur (milk fever)

B. Ca is most readily available from the jaw bone (not long bones!)it is

III. Functions (other than bone and teeth)

A. Blood clotting

B. Muscle contraction

C. Nerve transmission

D. Cell wall permeability

E. Enzyme activation

F. Milk production/egg production

G. Secretion of hormones & releasing factors

IV. Deficiency

A. Growth stunted

B. Malformation of teeth and bones

C. (See Vit. D – rickets, Osteomalacia, etc.)

V. Toxicity (not common)

A. May cause increased calcitonin secretion

1. Ca deposition in connective tissue and muscle

B. May cause kidney stones (w/ other minerals)

Phosphorus

I. Very closely linked to Ca

A. Bones & teeth

B. Vit. D, PTH and calcitonin

C. Definite ration in blood

II. Functions

A. Bone formation

B. Teeth development

C. Milk secretion

D. Building muscle tissue

E. Metabolic Functions:

1. Energy utilization

2. Phospholipid formation

3. Amino acid metabolism

4. Enzyme systems

III. Deficiency

A. Weakness

B. Loss of appetite

C. Loss of Ca (demineralization of bone)

D. Reproduction problems

E. Rickets, osteomalacia…

F. Excretion of blood in the urine

1. “Nutritional Redwater”

IV. Toxicity (not likely)

A. May cause ¯ Ca absorption

B. Urinary calculi

V. Ratio of Ca:P

A. 1 to 2 parts Ca to 1 part P

Sodium

I. Function

A. Cation in osmotic pressure and acid-base balance

1. Transfer of nutrients to cells

2. Removal of waste products

3. Maintenance of water balance among tissues

B. Constituent of pancreatic juice, bile, sweat, tears

C. Muscle contraction and nerve functions

D. Role in carbohydrate absorption

1. Na dependant transfer

II. Deficiency

A. Loss of appetite

B. Reduced growth & milk production, weight loss

C. Decreased reproduction

1. Male infertility

2. Delayed puberty by females

III. Toxicity (restricted water consumption)

A. Staggering gait

B. Blindness

C. Other nervous disorders

D. Hypertension

Chlorine

I. Functions

A. Osmotic pressure

B. Acid-base balance

C. Component of HCl in stomach

1. Protein digestion

2. Activation of pepsi

_3. Absorption of Vit. B₁₂

II. Deficiencies

A. Alkalosis – (alkali in blood)

1. Slow shallow breathing

2. Listless

3. Muscle cramps

4. Loss of appetite

B. Reduced growth rate

III. Toxicity – not likely (ample water)